The arecanut palms grow under a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It grows well from almost sea level up to an altitude of 1000 m in areas of abundant and well-distributed rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is grown in a variety of soils such as laterites, red loams and alluvial.

Varieties
Mangala, Sumangala, Sreemangala and Mohitnagar.

Selection of site
Select sites with deep well drained soil without high water table. Provide adequate irrigation facilities.

Selection of mother palms
Select mother palms showing earliness and regularity in bearing, high percentage of fruit set and semi-tall to dwarf stature.

Selection of seed nuts
Select fully tree-ripe nuts from middle bunches during mid season. Discard nuts, which are undersized, malformed and low in weight.

Nursery techniques

Sow selected seed nuts soon after harvest in nursery bed with stalk-end up and with a spacing of 5-6 cm. Cover the seed nuts with sand and irrigate daily.

Transplant 90 days old sprouts having 2-3 leaves to the secondary nursery. Prepare secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width and convenient length. Apply cattle manure @ 5 t ha^-1 as basal dose. Transplant sprouts at a spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm. Provide shade by growing banana, Coccinia indica etc or by means of artificial pandal. Plant banana in advance at a spacing of 2.7 m x 3.6 m when it is grown as a shade crop. Provide irrigation during hot and dry periods and drainage during monsoon. Periodical weeding and mulching are necessary.

Selection of seedlings

Select good seedlings for transplanting in the main field when they are 12-18 months old. Selection of seedlings can be based on the selection index. Multiplying leaf number by 40 and subtracting the seedling height gives the selection index. Select seedlings with higher selection index values.

Example:
Seedling height = 90 cm, Leaf number = 5

Selection index = (5 x 40)_90 = 110

(If for instance, index values range between 50 and 150, select seedlings with higher values to the extent possible). Uproot the seedlings with the ball of earth attached to them for transplanting.

Note: Plant characters such as girth at the collar one year after transplanting and number of nodes two years after transplanting are highly correlated with yield. Removal of plants with poor collar girth and lesser number of nodes one and two years after planting respectively, will help to increase the yield potential of plantations.

Field planting
Plant tall, quick growing shade trees on the southern and western sides of the plantation to provide protection from sun scorching.

Plant seedlings in pits at a spacing of 2.7 m x 2.7 m with north-south alignment, the rows being deflected at an angle of 35º towards west. Dig pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm and fill up with rich topsoil to a level of 15 cm from the bottom. Plant seedlings at the centre of pit, cover with soil up to collar level and press around.

The planting is to be done during May-June in well-drained soils and during August-September in clayey soils. Banana may be planted between rows to provide shade in the initial stages up to 4-5 years.

Manuring

Apply green leaf and compost, each @12 kg per palm per year from first year of planting onwards, during September-October.

Apply N:P₂O₅:K₂O for adult palms @ 100: 40:140 g / palm / year.

Apply 1/3 dose during first year, 2/3 dose during second year and full dose from third year onwards. Under irrigated conditions, apply fertilizers in two split doses, the first during September-October and the second during February. Under rainfed conditions, apply the second dose during March-April after the receipt of summer rains. Apply manures and fertilizers during September-October in circular basins of 15-20 cm depth and with a radius of 0.75-1.0 m from the palm. Apply the second dose of fertilizers around the base of palm after weeding and mix into soil by light forking. In acidic soils, broadcast lime @ 0.5 kg per palm once in two or three years and incorporate into soil by forking during March-April.

Irrigation and drainage

Irrigate the palms during hot and dry periods at regular intervals of 3-5 days depending upon the soil type.

The palms should be irrigated once in four to seven days depending on the soil type and climatic factors. In west coast, where major area of arecanut gardens are irrigated, watering the garden once in seven or eight days during November-December, once in six days during January-February and once in three to five days during March-April-May is recommended. In each irrigation, give about 175 litres of water per palm. Where there is shortage of water, follow drip irrigation. Application of organic mulch to the garden helps conservation of soil moisture.

Construct drainage channels (25-30 cm deep from the bottom of pits) between the rows and drain out water during periods of heavy rainfall to prevent waterlogging.

Cultural operations
Keep the garden free of weeds and break up surface crust by light forking or digging after cessation of monsoon during October-November. In slopes, prevent soil erosion by terracing. Sow seeds of green manure-cum-cover crops such as Mimosa invisa, Stylosanthes gracilis and Calapagonium muconoides in April-May with the onset of pre-monsoon rains. Cut and apply them to the palms in September-October.

Intercropping and mixed cropping
Crops such as elephant foot yam, pineapple, pepper, betel vine, banana, guinea grass, cocoa, ginger and cardamom can be grown in arecanut gardens. While planting cocoa, a spacing 2.7 m x 5.4 m is recommended. In all cases, the intercrops should be manured adequately and separately.

Plant protection
 

Pests

Mites

Orange coloured mites can be controlled by spraying the bunches with dimethoate at 0.05 per cent.

Spindle bug (Carvalhoia arecae)

The feeding injury is caused on the lamina and petiole. The affected leaves show dry brown patches.

Spray crowns with carbaryl 50 WP. The spray should reach the leaf axils. Repeat spraying after 30-35 days if pest incidence continues.

Inflorescence caterpillar (Batachedra sp.)
Force open the inflorescence out of the enclosing spathe and spray malathion 50 EC (250 ml in 100 litres of water). Control slugs, which predispose inflorescence to the attack of caterpillar, by using bait of metaldehyde.

Root grub (Leucopholis burmeisteri)

Loosen soil around the base of palms to a depth of 10-15cm and drench with chlorpyrifos 0.04 per cent suspension twice, one in May just before the onset of southwest monsoon and again in September- October towards the end of the monsoon. Repeat application for 2 or 3 years conse-cutively to secure a complete eradication of the pest.

Diseases

Koleroga (Mahali or fruit rot)

(Phytophthora palmivora)

Spray Bordeaux mixture 1per cent on all bunches three times in a year, one just before the onset of southwest monsoon and the rest at 40 days intervals. If monsoon season is prolonged give a third spray. Use rosin soda adhesive to ensure tenacity of the spray deposit on treated substrate. Remove and burn all fallen and infected nuts.

Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora)

Remove and destroy affected spindle and leaves. In early stages of infection, scoop out affected rotten tissues by making longitudinal side splits and apply Bordeaux paste on the exposed healthy tissues or drench crown with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.

Basal stem rot (Anabe) (Ganoderma lucidum)
1. Isolate affected palms by digging trenches 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide around, one metre away from the base and drench with calixin (0.08 per cent) or copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent)

2. Remove and destroy all severely affected palms and stumps of dead palms.

3. Drench the soil with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture before planting healthy seedlings.

4. Discourage growing of collateral hosts of fungus such as Delonix regia and Pongamia glabra in the vicinity of gardens.

5. Apply 2 kg neem cake per palm.
6. Avoid flood irrigation and water flowing from infected palms to healthy palms.

Yellow leaf disease

Maintain the garden properly to keep affected palms in a healthy condition by adopting recommended manurial, cultural, plant protection and other management practices. Improve drainage conditions in the garden.

Disease management

1. Apply the recommended dose of fertilizers.
2. In addition to the above, apply 160 g of rock phosphate per palm in the affected garden.

3. Apply organic manure @ 12 kg each of compost and green leaves per palm per year.

4. Provide irrigation during summer months.

5. Avoid water stagnation in the garden by providing drainage facilities.

6. Grow cover crops in the garden.

7. When only a few palms are affected in a garden, remove them to prevent further spread of the disease.

8. Adopt need based plant protection measures against pests and diseases.

Band disease

Improve soil conditions by loosening hard soil strata, if present, by providing good drainage. Adopt adequate control measures against spindle bug, mealy bugs, scales and mites. Where the results of the above treatments are not found satisfactory, apply powdered mixture of copper sulphate and lime in equal quantities @ 225 g/palm twice a year at the base of affected palms. Application of borax @ 25 g/palm has been found to have an ameliorative effect.

Collar rot of seedlings

Improve drainage conditions in nursery beds and gardens. Drench spindle and base of seedlings with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture in disease affected nursery or garden.

Dieback of inflorescence

Remove affected inflorescence immediately. Spray zineb (4 g in 1 litre of water) or mancozeb (3 g l^-1) twice, one just after female flowers are set and again 15-28 days later. Aureofungin sol at 100 ppm concentration is also effective in controlling the disease.

Stem bleeding

Palms in the age group of 10-15 years are more prone to this disease. Symptoms appear on the basal portion of the stem as small discoloured depression. Later, these spots coalesce and cracks develop on the stem leading to disintegration of the fibrous tissues inside. With the progress of the disease, a brown exudate oozes out from these cracks. High water table predisposes the palm to this disease.

Improvement of drainage and root feeding of 125 ml tridemorph (1.5 per cent) is suggested as control measure against this disease.

Sun scorch

Protect palms from southwest sun by wrapping stems with areca sheath or white-wash the exposed portion. Provide reinforcement to palms showing stem fissures. Grow tall, quick growing trees on southern and western sides of garden.

Nut splitting
This can be considered as a physiological disorder than a disease. Palms in the age group of 10-25 years are more susceptible. Symptoms are premature yellowing of the nuts when they are half to three-fourth mature. Later splits develop at the tips, which extend longitudinally exposing the kernel. Sometimes kernel also show splitting and malformation. Rarely the kernel inside may exhibit splitting without visual symptoms on the husk, resulting in nut fall. Hyper nutrition or sudden flush of water after a period of drought or insufficient moisture in the soil is the probable cause (s) of the disease.

Improvement of drainage in ill drained gardens and spraying of borax @ 2 g litre^-1 of water are found effective in reducing the disease incidence.

Betel vine requires a tropical climate with high atmospheric humidity. It can be cultivated in the uplands as well as in wetlands. In Kerala, it is mainly cultivated in arecanut and coconut gardens as an intercrop. The crop grows best on well-drained fertile soils. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for its cultivation. The crop also comes up very well in lateritic soils. Proper shade and irrigation are essential for successful cultivation of this crop. An annual rainfall ranging from 200 to 450 cm is ideal. The crop tolerates a minimum temperature of 10ºC and a maximum of 40ºC. Extremely low atmospheric temperature leads to leaf fall. Hot dry winds are harmful.

Varieties

The important types are Thulasi, Venmani, Arikodi, Kalkodi, Karilanchi, Karpuram, Chelanthikarpuram, Koottak-kodinandan, Perumkodi, Amaravila and Pramuttan.

Season

There are two important planting seasons. The Edavakodi is planted in May-June and the Thulakodi in August-September.

Preparation of land
Areas with good shade and irrigation facilities are preferred for this crop. The land is dug well and laid out into furrows of 10-15 m length, 75 cm width and 75 cm depth. Such furrows are opened at a distance of 1 m apart. Well rotten farmyard manure and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of the furrows, along with wood ash. High dose of organic manure (20-50 t ha^-1) is applied to maintain good soil structure, which is essential for the proper development of the root system.

Planting material and planting

Top portions of mature vines (2-3 years old) are used for planting. Healthy cuttings of about 1 m length with three nodes are used as planting material. For planting one hectare, 20000-25000 cuttings are required. Furrows are irrigated prior to planting. Cuttings are planted in holes 20 cm apart in furrows. While planting, one node shall be buried in the soil and the second node should be at the ground level. The soil around the planted cutting must be pressed firmly to encourage quick germination. It is necessary to provide shade to the planted cuttings. Coconut leaves are used as shading material. To prevent excess moisture in the soil, splashing water on the vines by hand is preferable in the early stages. In the absence of rain, light irrigation, four times daily, is given till establishment. Cuttings establish in three weeks time and the first leaf emerges in about a month.

Irrigation and drainage
Betel vine needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Hence, frequent light irrigations are given. The quantity of irrigation water should be such that the standing water should not remain for more than half an hour in the bed. If waterlogging by heavy rains or excess irrigation occurs, drainage should be arranged immediately. The best time for irrigation is morning or evening.

Trailing the vines and weeding

The cuttings sprout and creep in about a month. At this time, they must be trailed on the standards. Bamboo standards are erected at intervals and linked by tying at heights of 30 cm and 150 cm using coir rope. In the initial stages trailing is done on coir tied for the purpose. Trailing is done further by tying the vines, at intervals of 15-20 cm along the standards loosely with the help of banana fibre. When vines come in contact with standards, they produce adventitious roots using which they cling to support. Trailing is done every 15-20 days depending on the growth of vines. Gardens should be kept clean by weeding and stirring as and when required.

Manuring
Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cowdung slurry is sprinkled. This is repeated till four months after planting when the crop is ready for harvest. Application of different kinds of leaves (gliricidia, mango leaves etc) at monthly intervals is found advantageous for the growth of the vines.

Harvesting

In about 3-6 months time, vines grow to a height 150-180 cm. At this stage branching is noticed in the vines. Leaves are removed along with the petiole with the right thumb. Once harvesting is commenced, it is continued almost every day or week. The interval of harvesting varies from 15 days to about a month till the next lowering of vines. After each harvest, manuring has to be done.

Lowering the vines
Under normal conditions, vines grow to a height of about 3 m in one year time. When they reach this height, their vigour to produce normal sized leaves is reduced and the crop needs rejuvenation. This is done by lowering the vines down to the ground level at least once a year. Lowering is done during the months of August-September. Before lowering, all the leaves in the basal portion of the vines to a height of 15 cm are removed. Vine is untied from bottom upwards and coiled up carefully and laid flat on ground leaving 2.5 to 5 cm length of top shoots. Soil is put over the portion kept in the soil to about 5 cm thickness. Lowering is followed by light irrigation and manuring.

Plant protection

The cocoa tree flourishes in the dense shade of warm rain forests in its natural habitat and hence can be cultivated in all similar climatic conditions. The tree cannot withstand high winds, drought or sudden fall in temperature. The crop requires well distributed rainfall. The minimum requirement of rainfall is about 100-150cm per annum. Situations where the temperature falls below 10°C or rises above 38°C are unfavourable although minor deviations from the above limit can be adjusted by shade and irrigation. High wind velocity causes considerable mechanical damage to trees.

Cocoa is grown at altitude up to 900 m above MSL though it is possible to grow the crop even in much higher elevations under sheltered conditions.

The best soil for cocoa is forest soil rich in humus. The soil should allow easy penetration of roots and capable of retaining moisture during summer. Clay loams, loams and sandy loams are suitable. Shallow soils should be avoided.

Varieties

Though three varietal types viz., Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario are recognized, only Forastero types are known to perform well under Indian conditions. Breeding work initiated at the Kerala Agricultural University since 1979 has resulted in the release of seven improved clones of Forastero type. These are CCRP 1, CCRP 2, CCRP 3, CCRP 4, CCRP 5, CCRP 6 and CCRP 7. These improved clones are suitable for cultivation in different cocoa growing tracts of the country and also in the warm tropical areas especially under the shade of coconut. All these clones are tolerant to vascular streak dieback and have yield potential in the range from 55 to 180 pods per tree per year and mean yield from 38 to 78 pods per tree per year. During 2002, three hybrids viz., CCRP 8, CCRP 9 and CCRP 10 were released. These hybrids have mean yields of 90, 105 and 79 pods per tree per year. These are also tolerant to vascular streak dieback disease.

Cocoa exhibits self incompatibility and is highly cross pollinated. Therefore growing of different varieties adjacent to each other must be encouraged so as to achieve maximum fruit set and yield realization.

Selection of site
Cocoa is usually planted under coconut and arecanut plantations in India. Shade levels under coconut canopy are highly variable depending mainly on the spacing of coconut, extent of canopy development and age of palms. It is estimated that light infiltration through coconut canopy ranges from about 30 to 80 per cent depending upon these factors. Based on this, the general recommendation is as follows:

1. If a choice is possible, a coconut plantation that will let in about 50 per cent light through the canopy may be chosen for raising cocoa.

2. If the light infiltration is over 50 per cent, it may be beneficial to provide additional shade using temporary shade plants like banana.

Preparation of land

The seedlings / budded clones are usually planted in the interspaces of coconut/ arecanut. Give a spacing of 3 to 4.5 m. The crop is best grown with 50 per cent light intensity in the early stages. In the early life of the plants, planting of quick growing plants like banana and tapioca can provide temporary shade.

Planting materials

Cocoa can be propagated by seed and vegetative means.

Seed propagation

It is desirable to collect seeds from biclonal or polyclonal seed gardens involving superior self-incompatible parents to ensure genetic superiority of planting materials. Polyclonal and biclonal seed gardens have been established at CCRP farm of the Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara and Kidu farm of CPCRI and seeds and seedlings are being supplied to growers. If seeds cannot be procured from such seed gardens, mother plants for collection of seeds may be selected based on the following criteria:

(1) Trees of Forastero type having medium or large pods of not less than 350 g weight or 400 cc volume, green in colour when immature, having smooth or shallow furrows on the surface without prominent constriction at the neck should be selected. Yield of pods should be not less than 100 per year.

(2) Husk thickness of pods to be not more than 1 cm.

(3) Pod value (number of pods to give 1 kg wet beans) to be not more than 12.
(4) Number of beans per pod to be not less than 35.
(5) Bean dry weight to be not less than 1 g.
Seeds lose viability within a week of harvest of pods. Seeds are to be sown immediately after extraction from the pods. Viability of the beans can be extended for some more days if freshly extracted seeds are stored in moist charcoal and packed in polybags. Other alternative is extracting beans, removing the testa and packing in polythene bags.

Time of sowing

Though the seeds will germinate at any time of the year, seeds may preferably be sown by December-January, so that 4-6 month old seedlings become available for planting by May-June.

Method of sowing
Seeds are to be sown with hilum-end down or to be sown flat. Sowing is to be as shallow as to just cover the seeds with soil. Removal of pulp may enhance the speed of germination, but the extent of additional advantage is only marginal. Seeds germinating in about a week and germination may continue for another week. Percentage of germination may be around 90.

Cocoa nursery is to be located in a heavily shaded area, which allows only 25-50 per cent sunlight. Regular watering is necessary to keep the soil moist.

Seedlings are transplanted after 4-6 months. Only vigorous seedlings are to be used and based on height and stem girth, 25 per cent poor seedlings may be rejected. When seedlings are grown under heavy shade, hardening for 10 days by exposing to higher illumination may be necessary before transplanting.

Vegetative propagation
In view of the high variability exhibited by seedling progenies, vegetative propagation is preferred for large scale planting. Though vegetative propagation of cocoa by budding, rooting of cuttings and grafting are feasible, the widely accepted method in India is budding.

Scions for budding are to be collected from high yielding, disease resistant elite plants. Shoots having brown bark and just hardened leaves are selected as bud wood. Scions are preferably pre-cured by cutting off lamina of all the leaves of the selected scion shoot to a distance of about 30 cm from the tip. After 10 days when the petioles have fallen off, these scion shoots are cut and used for budding immediately. Bud wood can be stored by dipping in benzyl chloride followed by washing in water and then sealing the cut ends using molten wax. Bud wood is then wrapped in moist cotton wool and in turn in wet tissue paper or blotting paper and packed in boxes with wet packing material. The packet is then covered using polythene sheets. Storage life of the bud wood can be extended up to 10 days by this method. As far as possible, bud wood is to be collected from chupons as those produced from fans may develop into bushy plants with spreading habit. Rootstock, six to twelve months old may be selected in such a way that scion and rootstock are of the same thickness. Different successful methods include T, inverted T, patch, and modified Forkert methods. Patch budding is adopted in the Kerala Agricultural University.

Patch budding method consists of removing a patch of about 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm width from the rootstocks, preparing a bud patch of 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm width from the bud wood and inserting it into the rootstock and tying firmly with polythene tape. After three weeks, if there is bud-take, polythene tape is removed; a vertical cut is made half way through the stem above the bud and is snapped back. The snapped root stock portion is cut back after the bud has grown to a shoot and at least two leaves have hardened. It is then allowed to grow for a further period of three to six months after which they are transplanted. Under normal conditions, success can be around 70-90 per cent.

Selection of planting materials
When seedlings are used for planting, select only vigorous and healthy seedlings produced from polyclonal seed garden or selected mother plants as described earlier. When budded plants are used, select two or more clones for planting as the use of a single clone can lead to poor production due to the existence of self-incompatibility in cocoa.

Time and method of planting

Raising cocoa as a pure crop is not recommended especially in Kerala due to high pressure on land. Cocoa is planted as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens. In coconut, depending upon the spacing adopted, one or two rows of cocoa can be planted in between two rows of coconut i.e., two rows where the spacing is more than 8 m and one row otherwise, the plant distance for cocoa being 2.7 to 3 m. When two-row system is adopted, the seedlings may be planted in zigzag or triangular manner.

In arecanut where the normal spacing is 2.7 m, cocoa is planted at the centre of four areca palms along alternate rows of inter- spaces only. Pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm are dug, allowed to weather for one month and refilled with topsoil and 15-20 kg of compost or FYM to ground level. The planting hole should be sufficient to hold the soil ball of the polybag. Tear off the polybags carefully, place the soil ball with the seedlings in the planting hole with minimum disturbance and press the soil around firmly. Planting should coincide with the onset of monsoon, but in places where irrigation is resorted to, flexibility in the time of planting is possible.

Shaping of clonal plants derived from fan shoots
Budded plants from fan shoots have diffuse branching system and bushy growth habit. This type of growth causes difficulties in carrying out cultural operations and harvesting. If a better shape of the plant is desired, appropriate formation pruning may be necessary. This involves identification of a chupon arising from a fan shoot, allowing it to grow and removing the original, lower fan-like shoots in stages. This, however, has to be done slowly as an early drastic pruning will inhibit growth.

Manuring
Apply N:P₂O₅:K₂O in two equal split doses in April-May and September-October, @ 100:40: 140 g / tree / year. N:P₂O₅:K₂O may be applied @ 200:80:280 g / plant / year, in trees yielding more than 60 fruits per year. Dolomite @ 100 g / plant / year may be applied to plants from the third year onwards.

Under irrigated conditions, the yearly dose may be split into four and applied during April-May, September-October, December and February-March.

Apply 1/3 of adult dose during the first year of planting, 2/3 during second year and full dose from the third year onwards.

Apply fertilizers in circular basins with a radius of 25 cm during the first year. Gradually increase the radius of the basin to 120 cm by the third year. Apply fertilizers in the entire area of 1.5 m radius around the tree followed by forking in.

Plants showing zinc deficiency symptoms (narrowing of leaves, sickle leaf formation, green vein banding, chlorosis in the interveinal areas) should be sprayed with 0.5 to 1.5 per cent ZnSO₄ three times a year.

After cultivation
During the first three or four years after planting, it is essential to keep the field free from weeds. Maintenance and regulation of shade should be carried out promptly. During the establishment phase of the crop particularly in summer, provide mulching with materials like chopped banana sheath, coconut husk, cocoa husk etc. to conserve moisture in conditions of direct insolation. A mature cocoa plantation should form a proper canopy, which will be dense enough to prevent weed growth. Operations such as pruning and regulation of shade should be attended to in time.

Pruning and training
Cocoa grows in a series of storeys, the chupon or vertical growth of the seedling terminating at the jorquette from where four to five fan branches develop. Further vertical growth is continued through a side chupon that arises from a point just below the jorquette which again jorquettes after growing to some height. Left for it, the plant will grow to a height of 8-10 m repeating this process of jorquetting and chupon formation 3-5 times.

When cocoa is grown as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut plantation, it is desirable to restrict the growth to one tier formed at a convenient height preferably above the head level of the workers. When jorquetting takes place at lower levels this can be raised by nipping off all the fan branches and allowing one chupon to develop and grow further to jorquette at the desired height. After this is achieved, further vertical growth is arrested through periodical removal of chupons.

The intensity of pruning is to be decided by the nature of growth of individual trees, shade intensity, growth of the companion crops etc. In the early stages, pruning is done to give a particular shape to the tree. After the establishment of the trees in the garden, prune them to the extent of retaining only the required number of leaves (20-30 leaves per developing pod). Removal of secondary branches from the centre should be restricted only to those trees growing in excess shade.

Irrigation

Cocoa grows well as a rainfed crop under conditions of well distributed rainfall and irrigation is not necessary. If sufficient moisture is not present in the soil due to prolonged drought or failure of rains, irrigation is to be given once in five days. Irrigation, however, helps in better growth of plants and precocity in bearing.

Top working

This technique is useful to rejuvenate old and unproductive cocoa plants and also to convert genetically poor yielders to high yielders. This consists of snapping back the desired trees below the jorquette after cutting half way. The snapped canopy continues to have contact with the trunk. A number of chupons would arise below the point of snapping and this is triggered by the breakage of apical dominance and continued connection with the snapped canopy. Patch budding as described earlier may be done on three to four vigorous and healthy shoots using scions from high yielding, disease resistant clones and the remaining chupons are removed. The polythene tape is removed three weeks after budding and the stock

portion above the bud union is snapped back. The snapped portion is removed after two hardened leaves develop from the bud. When sufficient shoots are hardened, canopy of the mother tree can be completely removed. Because of the presence of an established root system and the trunk with reserve food, the top worked trees grow much faster and give prolific yield one year after the operation. Though top working can be done in all seasons, it is preferable to do it in rain-free period in irrigated gardens. For rainfed situations, it may preferably be done after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers.

Top worked trees start yielding heavily from the second year onwards. About 50 per cent improved yield is obtained in the second year and about 100 per cent improved yield in the third year. Loss of crop for one year during the operation is compensated by bumper crop in the coming years. The main stem will continue to belong to the older plant and fruits borne on this area belong to the poor yielder. Better yields are however obtained from the fan branches of the high yielding clone used for top working.

Plant protection
 

Pests

Red borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
Larvae burrow into the main stem of young plants and fan shoots of older trees, causing drying up.

Management
Prune off and burn affected fan shoots. Spray carbaryl 0.1 per cent on the main stems of young plants as a prophylactic measure.

Striped squirrel (Funambulus sp.)
The squirrels gnaw the bronzing pods and extract the beans along with mucilaginous pulp.

Management

Harvest the crop just when bronzing is visible in the pod furrows. Mechanical protection of the pods can be ensured by covering them with punched polybags (150 gauge) smeared with bitumen-kerosene mixture.

Rats (Rattus rattus)
Rats are serious pests in densely planted coconut gardens with cocoa as an intercrop. They inhabit the coconut palm crowns and descend during night and cause damage to pods. Nature of damage is similar to that caused by squirrels.

Management

Baiting with anticoagulant rodenticides in the garden is recommended. Rain-proof preparations are to be used. Set up bamboo traps with bow attachment on the crown of palms.

Myllocerus weevils (Myllocerus viridanus)

Adults skeletonise the foliage and this is serious in young plants during July-September. Spray undersurfaces of the foliage with quinalphos 0.05 per cent.

Mealy bugs (Planococcus citri and Rastrococcus sp.)
The bugs occur in cherelles, developing pods and shoots and desap the tissues. This can be controlled by spot application of quinalphos 0.05 per cent or phosalone 0.07 per cent.

Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii)

Colonies of pink aphids occur ventrally on the leaves of chupon shoot. Tender shoots are also damaged.

Management
Nip off the flaccid leaves along with the shoots and destroy the colonies.

Cockchafer beetle (Popillia sp. and Leucopholis sp.)

Grubs feed on the roots of freshly planted seedlings causing wilting. Apply carbaryl 10 per cent DP at the rate of 10g pit around freshly planted seedlings.

The pods are damaged by Helopeltis sp. The pest can be controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05 per cent.

Diseases
Seedling blight (Phytophthora palmivora)

The symptoms develop on the leaves and stem of the seedlings or budded plants. On leaves, small water-soaked lesions appear which later coalesce resulting in the blightening of leaves. On stem, water-soaked linear lesions develop initially and later turn to black colour. Stem infection develops at any point on the stem causing the death of seedlings / budded plants.

Management
Remove and destroy severely affected seedlings. Improve drainage and adjust shade. Spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent copper oxychloride or 0.3 per cent potassium phosphonate just before the onset of monsoon and thereafter at frequent intervals.

Phytophthora pod rot / black pod (Phytophthora palmivora, P. citrophthora, P. capsici)
 

Fruits at all stages of maturity may be attacked by P. palmivora. The first visible symptom is the appearance of a circular brown spot, which enlarges concentrically, and evenly to involve the whole pod surface. Ultimately the colour of the affected pod becomes dark brown or black. In immature pods, the discolouration spreads internally with rotting of the beans. The beans in

mature pods may remain partly or wholly unaffected.

Management

Periodically remove and destroy all dried up and infected pods. Spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture with adhesive (rosin washing soda preparation) with the onset of monsoon and also at frequent intervals. Provide proper drainage and regulate shade to increase aeration.

Lasiodiplodia pod rot / charcoal pod rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae)

The disease occurs more frequently during dry season. Pods of all stages are affected. The symptoms appear as pale yellow spots from the stalk-end or tip of the pod. Later, the lesions enlarge and cover the entire pod having chocolate brown colour. In due course, the whole pod develops a black sooty appearance due to formation of spores of the fungus.

Management
Since the disease is more common on pods of plants under stress, better management practices will reduce the incidence of the disease. Remove all affected pods and spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.

Colletotrichum pod rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
The disease causes rotting of immature pods. Infection starts from the stalk-end of the pod and spreads towards tip as dark brown discolouration with a diffused yellow halo. Internal tissues of the pod also show discolouration. The whole pod turns to black and remains on the tree in a mummified form. Sometimes, infection may start from parts other than the stalk region as dark brown sunken lesion.

Management

Remove all infected pods and spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent copper oxychloride or mancozeb.

Phytophthora canker

(Phytophthora palmivora)

The earliest symptom is the appearance of greyish brown water-soaked lesion with dark brown to black margin anywhere on the stem. A reddish brown liquid oozes out from the lesions, which later dry up to form a rusty deposit. The internal tissues beneath the outer greyish brown lesion appear as reddish brown. The wood shows greyish brown discolouration with black streaks. Wilting occurs, when canker girdles the affected stem / branches.
 

Management

If the disease is detected early, remove and destroy the affected tissues completely and apply Bordeaux paste. Wilted branches should be cut and removed. Since canker mainly develops from pod rot caused by Phytophthora, proper control measures of Phytophthora pod rot will help in reducing incidence of the disease.

Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor)

The disease appears as a pinkish powdery coating on the stem of affected plants. The pink colour represents profuse conidial production by the fungus. The fungal growth may rapidly spread and girdle the stem, so that the distal parts are affected. The extent to which the leaf may wilt, turn brown and fall depends on the part of the tree, which is affected. The disease mainly affects the forking region and the damage is localized. Splitting of the bark on the affected region is also noticed. Sometimes, the fungus produces pustules (Necator stage), which are orange red in colour and are arranged in rows along the stem.

Management
Remove all the infected and dried branches. Apply Bordeaux paste at the fork region and at the cut ends of the twigs and spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture before the onset of monsoon. Repeat spraying again once or twice during the monsoon season according to the intensity of the disease.

Vascular Streak Dieback (VSD) (Oncobasidium theobromae)
The first indication of the disease is the characteristic chlorosis of one or two leaves on the second or third leaf behind the tip. Leaves on the tip show symptoms first only in very young seedlings or in slow growing seedlings or branches. The chlorotic patches on the diseased leaves develop into small sharply defined green spots scattered over a yellow background. Diseased leaves fall within a few days after turning yellow. Leaves above and below the first diseased leaf soon begin to show yellowing with green patches and these also fall off finally resulting in dieback of the infected branches.

Leaf scars from the fall of chlorotic leaves are sometimes covered by a white, loosely adherent fruiting body of the fungus. These fruiting bodies have been found only on leaf scars and adjacent bark in the diseased region of cocoa stems. If the diseased stem is split longitudinally, the xylem is found to be discoloured by brown streaks.

Management

Cut and remove all infected twigs. Prune off all affected branches 30 cm below the last point of visible vascular streak of the stem to prevent further spread within the plant. Grow VSD tolerant cocoa types.

White thread blight (Marasmiellus scandens)

The white mycelial threads of the fungus spread longitudinally and irregularly along the surface of the stem of young branches and enter the leaf along the petioles. On the leaf lamina it spreads extensively and forms a much branched system of fine threads. The affected leaves turn dark brown and such dead leaves eventually get detached from the stem, but are found suspended by the mycelial thread. Extensive death of the young branches and suspended leaves in rows are the common field symptoms.

Management

Remove and destroy the affected plant parts. Avoid heavy shade. Spray 1per cent Bordeaux mixture.

Harvesting

It takes about 170 days for a cocoa pod to develop from formation to maturity. During the period from 70-140 days after pollination, the size of pods and their fat and sugar content increase rapidly. Ripening takes about 25 days, during which, the pods change colour depending on the variety. Pods remain suitable for harvesting for fairly long time after they have ripened. Hence, it is possible to have harvest of sufficient number of pods at a time by either delaying the harvest of early ripened pods or harvest of pods, which are fully ripened. Harvesting should be done at regular intervals rather than daily, once in 7-10 days. Avoid over ripening of pods. The discards at the harvest can be left in the garden either in the open during summer or in pits at different sites in the rainy season, or they can be incorporated in the compost. Pod husks from the fermentary can also be used similarly as a good source of organic manure.

Pods are removed by cutting with a sickle-sharp knife, without damaging the cushion from which it is developed. After 2-3 days, they are split by banging them against some hard objects. Opening the pods with a knife damages the beans. During the period bet-ween harvesting and splitting, pre-fermentation activity inside the pod is hastened, which improves later fermentation. Beans from the split pods are scraped out with fingers. Portions of placenta broken, germinated, caked, parthenocarpic and undeveloped beans are removed. On an average, 10-12 pods give 1 kg of wet beans and 3 kg of wet beans (from 30-36 pods) give 1 kg of fermented and dried beans.

Fermentation

During fermentation, the pulp or mucilage covering the fresh beans is removed and characteristic chocolate flavour is imparted to the final produce. The process is simple but must be carried out properly in order to get beans of good quality. Heat is produced by keeping the fresh beans compactly and this heat must be conserved so that chemical changes inside the bean can be completed. The four methods of fermentation usually employed involve the use of baskets, heaps, boxes and trays for filling up the wet beans.

Tray method

The best method suitable for small quantities of beans is the tray fermentation. Wooden trays, 10 cm deep with slatted / split cane bottoms are divided into a number of sections by means of wooden partitions that fit into appropriate grooves at required distances. The capacity of the tray can be adjusted depending upon the availability of beans by keeping the wooden plank in the appropriate grooves. A convenient tray can be 25 cm wide and 60 cm long. Wet beans are filled in the tray and levelled. About 10 kg of wet beans may be required to load one tray fully.

A single tray of beans will not ferment properly and at least four or five trays are needed for successful fermentation. The trays are stacked one over the other in such a manner that the cocoa filled portions are in a single row one above the other. The top tray is covered with plantain leaves. After 24 hours, a close fitting sack is put to cover the stack to keep the beans warm. Mixing or stirring of beans is not necessary and fermentation gets completed in 4 to 5 days, whereas 6 to 7 days are required for other methods of fermentation.

Basket method

In this method, bean lots ranging from 2-6 kg can be fermented successfully. Mini baskets may be made of bamboo matting, closely woven and should have a diameter of 20 cm and height of 15 cm for a capacity of 2 kg. For slightly larger lots, proportionately deeper baskets may be used (e.g., for 6 kg, the depth may be about 40 cm). The baskets are lined with one or two layers of

torn banana leaves to facilitate drainage of sweatings. Wet beans are then filled, compacted and covered with banana leaves. The baskets are placed on a raised platform to allow the flow of drippings. After 24 hours, it is covered with gunny-sack and apply weight (bricks). The beans are to be taken out and stirred well 48 hours and 96 hours after the initial setting. Fermentation will be completed in six days and the beans can be taken for drying on the seventh day.

A number of factors influence the duration of fermentation. Weather changes and season are important through their influence on temperature and atmospheric moisture. Ripening also affects fermentation. Beans from unripe pods cannot be fermented. Beans of Criollo ferment more quickly than those of Forastero. During the early stages of fermentation, heat is produced by the action of anaerobic microorganisms. The beans are killed by the combined effect of heat and acetic acid and the cocoa aroma and flavour potential are developed.

Judging the end point of fermentation
Well-fermented beans will be plumpy and filled with a reddish brown exudate. The testa becomes loosened from the cotyledons. When cut open, the cotyledons will have a bleached appearance in the centre with a brownish ring in the periphery. When above 50 per cent of beans in a lot show the above signs, it can be considered as properly fermented.

Drying

On completion of fermentation, beans are dried either in the sun or by artificial means. Sun drying can be done in thin layers 2-3 cm deep and stirring from time to time. Under normal sunny weather, drying can be completed in four to five days. While drying in mechanical driers, care must be taken to avoid exposure of the beans to smoke, fumes etc. The most common method of

determining bean dryness is to take a sample and compress this in the palm of the hand and listen for the characteristic sound, which is associated with correctly dried cocoa. The more scientific method is to use a moisture meter.

Wherever water is available, overhead irrigation by sprinkler system is adopted to a greater advantage during November-January to keep the soil moisture level and in February-April for ensuring blossom as well as backing, if necessary.

Drought management in coffee
Plants affected by drought limit vegetative growth, show floral abnormalities and poor fruit set resulting in reduced yield. Therefore, drought tolerance is an important aspect of coffee productivity. Arabica coffee is more tolerant to drought than robusta. For inducing tolerance in robusta the following nutrient solution can be sprayed @ 1 litre per plant.

Nutrient in 200 litres of water
Urea                                 1 kg
Super phosphate             1 kg

Muriate of potash             750 g

Zinc sulphate                   1 kg

Spraying schedule
1^st spray: 45 days after the last rainfall (usually the 2^nd fortnight of January)

2^nd spray: 30-45 days after the first spray

Foliar application of anti-transpirants like Ralli Dhan 110 @ 200 ml in 200 litres of water (0.1per cent) is also useful for drought management in coffee.

Fruit drop

During the developmental stage of berry, 10 to 50 per cent premature fruit drop occurs due to insufficient carbohydrate, auxin-carbohydrate imbalance, nutritional disorders and waterlogging. Many growth regulators have been tried to increase the fruit set and for controlling the pre-mature fruit drop. Following growth regulators could increase the yield when they are given as

foliar application 10-15 days after blossom (first spray) and during last week of May before the onset of southwest monsoon (second spray)

 

Growth regulator	In 200 ml of water	Dose/ha (for 1.5 l)
Planofix	50 ml	375 ml
Hormonol	50 ml	375 ml
Agrona	50 ml	375 ml
Miraculan	50 ml	375 ml
Atonik	50 ml	375 ml
Cytozyme crop	60 ml	450 ml
Ascorbic acid	20 g	150 g

Fruit ripening

Hastening of fruit ripening in coffee could be achieved by spraying ethephon (Ethrel) on mature berries when 10 per cent natural ripening is observed. By this, ripening can be hastened by 2-4 weeks and in two rounds about 96 per cent ripe fruits could be harvested. The following concentrations are standardized for arabica and robusta plants.

Arabica : 100 to 120 ml per 200 litres of water per 400 plants

Robusta : 40 to 54 ml per 200 litres of water per 267 plants

Lower concentrations are to be used in lower elevations and thin shaded places, whereas higher concentrations are to be used in higher elevation and thick shaded plantations.

Dieback

Dieback refers to death of younger tertiary branches starting from apex progressing downwards as well as dieback from below the tip of branches and proceeding forward and backward from the point of defoliation. The occurrence of dieback is mainly due to adverse climatic and edaphic factors such as higher temperature, higher light intensity and low moisture status of soil.
 

Management
1. Removal of dead and whippy wood

2. Providing judicious shade by both temporary and permanent shade trees as 70 per cent of daylight is found to be optimum

3. Conservation of soil moisture with thick mulch

4. Foliar application of nutrients

5. Correcting the soil acidity by application of lime
 

Shade and shade management

Dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is generally used as a lower canopy in India. It is always planted along with coffee in new clearings. When stakes are planted in June they grow quickly since sufficient moisture will be there in the soil. In areas where the establishment of dadap is difficult due to poor rooting, application of rooting hormones and manuring have been found useful.

Diseases

Leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix)

This is an important disease causing economic loss particularly in arabica coffee. On the lower surface of the infected leaves, small pale yellowish spots appear early after the first rains in the season. These spots soon increase in size and number, and many such spots coalesce at severity causing premature defoliation. Severe defoliation leads to debilitation of the bushes and results in poor cropping in the succeeding seasons.

Management

Spray susceptible coffee with 0.5 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.03 per cent ai Oxycarboxin 20 EC 3-4 times a year: Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in February-March as pre- or post-blossom spray, Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai in May-June as pre-monsoon spray, Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in July-August in mid-monsoon spray (if incidence of leaf rust is severe), and Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in September-October as post-monsoon spray.

Black rot (Koleroga noxia)

A disease more in occurrence in endemic areas with heavy rainfall, saturated atmosphere with 95-100 per cent RH, thick overhead shade, low over-hanging branches, sheltered from sunlight and wind in valleys or continuous mist during monsoon. The affected bushes have blackening and rotting of leaves, twigs and developing berries. There will be defoliation and berry drop in the

affected branches. The entire block affected looks totally debilitated with heavy damage to crop.

Management

Centering and handling of the bushes prior to the onset of monsoon and protecting endemic patches with spraying Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent. If incidence is observed during the monsoon, remove the affected twigs and burn them. Spray with Bordeaux mixture 1per cent during break in the monsoon.

Pests
Coffee berry borer

(Hypothenemus hampei)

Coffee berry borer is the most serious pest of coffee world over. The female beetle bores into the berries through the navel region and makes tunnels in the hard bean and lays about 15 eggs. The larvae feed on the beans, making small tunnels. A typical pinhole at the tip of the berries indicates the presence of the pest, and it damages young as well as ripe berries. In case of severe
infestation, 30 to 80 per cent berries may be affected resulting in heavy crop loss. The coffee berry borer can be controlled by the following methods.

Management

Timely and complete harvest, collection of gleanings, burying the infested berries and maintaining optimum shade and good drainage can control the pest.
 

Spraying quinalphos 0.05 per cent along with wetting agent 120-150 days after flowering (Aug-Sept. for arabica and Sept-Oct. for robusta) can control the pest.
 

White stem borer

(Xylotrechus quadripes)

The adults have two flight periods as they emerge from the pupae during April-May and in September to December/January. As the beetles are active and females lay eggs in the crevices on the main stem of coffee, major efforts to control initial laying of eggs itself is aimed at by swabbing the main stem and the thick primaries with carbaryl 50 WP @ 4 kg in 200 litres of water once or twice (depending upon the severity of the incidence) in April-May or October to December. Apart from this, it is necessary to build up good shade and regularly trace, uproot stump and burn the infested plants. Storing of cut stems is not advisable, as it will advance the flight period.

Shot hole borer (Xylosandrus compactus)

This is a major pest in robusta coffee affecting the secondary and tertiary branches causing considerable damage. Injury to the coffee plants is primarily by the extensive tun-neling within the branches, which limits the flow of sap. The affected branches dry up. The presence of withering and dead branches with shot holes is the symptom of attack.

Management

1. Prune the affected twigs 5-8 cm beyond the shot hole and burn. This operation should commence from September onwards, as soon as the first symptom of attack like dropping of leaves is noticed, and continued as a routine measure at regular intervals.

2. The pest prefers to breed in the suckers during dry period. So remove and destroy all the unwanted/infested suckers during summer.

Mealy bugs (Planococcus sp.)

Mealy bugs damage coffee plants by sucking the sap from the tender branches, nodes, leaves, spikes, berries and roots leading to the debilitation of the plant. In case of root infestation, plants (especially young) become weak, leading to death.

Management
The mealy bug can be controlled by spraying quinalphos. In addition, the biological control agents like Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (ladybird beetle) and the parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii have been found effective. Indirect control of the disease can be made by controlling the ants, which spread the infestation.

Green scale (Coccus viridis)

The green scale is a serious sucking pest of coffee particularly arabica.

Tea grows best in areas with a maximum temperature of 16-32 ºC and a well distributed rainfall of about 150 cm per annum. Relative humidity should be around 80 per cent most of the time and should never be less than 40 per cent. The area should not be prone to frost. The soil should be acidic (around pH 5.0) having good drainage facility.

Varieties

Clones:   UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9, UPASI-17, TRI-2025, TRF-1
Seedlings: BSS-1, BSS-2

Propagation
The seed viability extends up to 6 months. Before sowing, seeds are put in water and only the sinkers will be used and floaters rejected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and the cracked seeds are transplanted in polythene sleeves. The plants will be ready for planting in the main field in 9 months.

Manuring of nursery plants
Composition of tea nursery mixture is as follows:

Ammonium phosphate (20:20)            60 parts

Potassium sulphate                            24 parts

(or) Muriate of potash                          20 parts
Magnesium sulphate                           16 parts

Stock solution Dissolve 30 g of the mixture in 10 litres of water. This can be sprayed over 2 m² (450 plants) at weekly interval.

Field preparation
In the case of new planting, in order to avoid the incidence of root diseases, after felling the trees, remove the root system to the extent possible. Clear the jungle growth but do not burn, the ash being alkaline will increase the pH.

In the case of replanting, remove old Grevillea (silver oak) after ring barking, leaving the young ones in the field. Level the land into an even slope to facilitate easy cultural operations and proper drainage.

Style of planting
Up and down                                         :1.2 m x 1.2 m (6800 plants/ha)

Contour planting, single hedge             :1.2 m x 0.75 m (10,800 plants/ha)

Contour planting, double hedge            : 1.35 m x 0.75 m x 0.75 m (13200 plants/ha)

The double hedge planting will accommodate more number of plants per unit area. Early high yield, better soil conservation, less weed growth, efficient cultural practices and better supervision are other advantages of double hedge planting.

Pitting

Pits of size 30 cm x 45 cm are taken. Keep the top and bottom soil separately. In clayey soil and drought-prone areas, deeper pits (60 cm) or trench planting will be advantageous.

Planting seasons

Southwest monsoon areas: June-July Northeast monsoon areas: September-October

Planting

If the soil pH is more than 5.5, apply 100 g of powdered aluminium sulphate per pit and thoroughly mix with soil. Select seedlings of 12 months old. After planting the seedling, compact the soil surrounding the plant and apply mulch @ 25 t ha^-1. While mulching care should be taken to keep the mulch material away from the collar region of the plant by putting a peg above the plant on the slope. Wherever mulch material is a problem, intercrop or cover crop could be raised.

Manuring

Manuring of young tea commences two months after planting. The ratio and source of nutrients vary according to soil reaction (pH).

Rates of fertilizer application for young tea in soils with pH below 4.5 are given below:

 

Age	N:K2O:MgO kg/ha/annum	No. of splits
1st year	180:270:30	5
2nd year	240:360:40	6
3rd year	300:450:50	6
4th year & above	300:300:50	6

Apply phosphorus at 90 kg/ha^-1 every year in one application. The quantity of fertilizer per bush may be calculated assuming a population of 13,000 per ha.

Rates of application for soils with pH between 4.5 and 5.5 are as follows:

The rate of fertilizer application for mature tea varies with yield and soil test values while the N:K₂O ratio varies with the stage of pruning.

Method of application

Apply the recommended quantity of mixtures along the drip circle of plants. In the semi-circular furrow taken above the plant on the slope, using a Kokra-eyebrow method, apply the fertilizers when there is adequate soil moisture and when the fields are free from weeds. Punch holes of 15-22 cm depth in the soil on either side of the plants and place the rock phosphate.

Training of young tea

Proper training of young tea is essential to encourage good spread of the bushes, proper development of frames and high density of plucking points.
 

Centering

Cut the leader stem of the plants with secateur to arrest the apical dominance and to induce the secondary branches. Cut as low as possible leaving 8-10 mature leaves below the cut. Ensure proper recovery. Centering should be done 4-6 months after planting during humid weather when there is adequate moisture in the soil.
 

Tipping

First plucking of the periodic shoot is done after centering / pruning. Two-tier tipping ensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm height will induce the tertiaries. Second tipping at 50 cm height will increase the density of plucking points. Tipping should be done at green, semi-hardwood branches. Tipping should be done in shoots having 3-4 leaves and a bud.

Plucking
Mother leaf / step-up plucking is practiced during lean seasons. Level plucking is done during high cropping months. This is essential for better frame development.

Shade management

The best permanent shade tree for tea plantation in South India is silver oak (Grevillea robusta).

Planting of silver oak

The silver oak can be propagated through seeds. The seeds should be sown within six months after collection. Seed should be sown in raised beds of 1 m width and of convenient length using sandy loam soil with a pH around 6.0. Seed should be covered with thin layer of sand / ash. Germination takes place in 2-3 weeks. Use 6-9 month old seedlings for planting. Plant along tea rows at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m (275 plants/ha). Apply a mixture of 100 g rock phosphate and 400 g dolomite per pit and thoroughly mix with soil prior to planting. Apply NK mixture @ 100 g/tree twice in a year; rock phosphate at 250 g/tree and borated lime 1.1 kg (1 kg dolomite + 100 g boric acid) during alternate years.

Shade regulation

Tea requires only sparse shade. So retain optimum stand of shade based on the growth of the tree, altitude of the garden and aspect of the field (south and west slopes require more shade). Thin out shade initially to 12 m x 6 m after 8-10 years of planting and if required further thinning may be done to 12 m x 12 m at later stages (12 years from planting). Always thin out shade prior to pruning.

Pollarding

Cutting the main stem with the objective of developing lateral branches is pollarding. Commence pollarding when the trees attain a girth of around 50 cm at elbow level. Pollarding depends on altitude (8 m height for higher altitude, 9 m for low elevation). Leave one branch in each direction and 3 to four tiers of branches, below the pollarding height.

Annual lopping

Cutting the erect growing branches on the laterals is lopping, which should be done before the onset of monsoon and lop only the erect branches and retain the laterals.

Shade removal
Potential age of Grevillea is 40-60 years. Remove old trees after establishing new shade.

Temporary shade

For frost prone areas: Acacia mearnsii

For mid elevations: Indigofera teysmanii
For higher altitude: Sesbania cinerescens,
Crotalaria agathiflora and Acacia elata

Planting at 3 m x 3 m spacing is adopted. Temporary shade should be removed after establishment of Grevilliea after 3 years.

Plucking

Ten commandments for plucking
1. Harvest two to three leaves and a bud and / single and two-leaf banjis.

2. Pluck the mother leaf during January-March.

3. Pluck the new level during rest of the month.
4. Pluck at 7-10 days interval during high cropping months.
5. Pluck at 12-15 days interval during low cropping months.

6. Removal of banjis and breaking-back should be a part of plucking operation.

7. Do not pluck below the level.
8. Leave immature shoots.
9. Shear-harvest during rush periods.
10. Cut lanes in older fields.

Pruning

 

Type of pruning	Season	Height
Rejuvenation Hard pruning Medium pruning Light pruning Skiffing	April / May April / May Aug / Sept Aug / Sept October	<30 cm 30-45 cm 45-60 cm 60-65 cm >65 cm

Post-pruning care
Apply copper oxychloride or sulphur+ linseed oil (1:1) to large cut-ends after rejuvenation and hard pruning.
 

Plant protection
Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)

These microscopic worms infest roots, which develop to knots or galls. Affected roots become defunct and devoid of lateral roots. Plants exhibit chlorosis and stunted growth.

Management
Nursery
Heat treatment: Spread soil sand mixture (5 cm thick) on a G.I. sheet. Heat it from below. Sprinkle water periodically. Mix the soil thoroughly by turning. Optimum temperature is 60-65ºC. Soil should not be too hot to hold in the hand. Over heating of soil will lead to manganese toxicity.

Mature tea
Neem cake 2 kg per bush is recommended.

White/cockchafer grubs (Holotrichia sp.)

The creamy white grub eats away the roots. The main symptoms are ring barking of stem, chlorosis and defoliation. The pest is a serious problem in areas where un-decomposed farmyard manure is used.

Management

Nursery: Heat treatment of soil is effective.

New clearing : Drench chlorpyriphos or quinal- phos 0.05 per cent.

(1) At the time of planting: 500 ml per pit.

(2) Post-planting treatment: Loosen the soil around the bush and pour one litre per bush.

Root mealy bug (Dysmicoccus sp.)

The pest is a problem in the nursery. It sucks sap from the callusing region, mother leaf petiole and axillary buds. This arrests root development; leads to mother-leaf fall and finally death of plant.It can be controlled by spraying and soil drenching with chlorpyriphos or quinalphos 0.05 per cent.

Stem borers

Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)

Mostly seen in new clearings as batches. Young stems are bored and larvae tunnel downward, make holes at intervals to eject excreta and wood particles. Frass and excreta are seen around plants. Alternate host of the pest is coffee and cocoa.

Large hepialid borer

(Sahyadrassus malabaricus)

This is a polyphagous pest attacking teak, eucalyptus and lantana. Thick branches (3 cm diameter) are preferred by the pest. Callus tissue and wood form food for larvae. Entrance holes are covered with frassy mat formed with chewed wood and silk.

Management

Cut the affected stem and pour quinalphos using ink filler. The holes are plugged with clay paste.

Mites

Several species of mites attack tea plants. They are dry weather pests mostly attacking mature foliage except pink and yellow mites.

Management

If infestation is more, quinalphos will be effective.

Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus)

This is a major pest in all tea growing countries. Feeding causes lacerations of tissue and appears as streaks. Leaf surface becomes uneven, curled and matty. Feeding marks in bud appear as parallel lines on either side of mid-rib when leaf unfolds. Leaf margins turn yellow.

Management

Phosalone, quinalphos and dimethoate can be used for the pest control.

Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)
Adults and nymphs suck the sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems. Due to intensive feeding, leaves curl up, badly deform and shoots dry up. Chemical control involves spraying quinalphos + dichlorvos at spray intervals depending on the intensity of incidence

Root diseases

Black root disease (Rosellinia arcuata)

Common in areas, which were previously under jungles. The common symptoms are wilting, chlorosis, drying without defoliation and death of bush.

Management

Remove surface mulches around 10 metres. Drench soil with mancozeb 30 g per 10 litres of water. Follow phytosanitary measures. Biocontrol agents Trichoderma or Gliocladium (200 g per pit) may be incorporated at the time of planting.

Other root diseases are red root disease (Poria hypolateritia), brown root disease (Fomes noxius), root splitting disease (Armillaria mellea) and xylaria root disease (Xylaria sp.). Phytosanitary measures, use of biocontrol agents and chemical control (drench soil with tridemorph or hexaconazole 0.5 per cent) are recommended.

Stem diseases

Collar canker (Phomopsis theae)
Seen mostly on young tea. The pathogen invades stem mostly through open wound. The predisposing factors for the disease are deep planting, planting in gravelly soils, mulching closer to collar, wounds caused by weeding implements, fertilizer application close to collar, pegging, low moisture status in bark and surface watering during dry weather. The main symptoms are chlorosis, cessation of growth, profuse flowering and canker on stem.

Management

Remove affected portion by pruning the healthy wood and apply copper fungicide to cut ends.

Other stem diseases are branch

canker (Macrophoma theicola),woodrot

(Hypo-xylon serpens) and dieback (Leptothyrium theae).

Leaf disease

Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans)
The fungus affects only tender leaves and stems (pluckable shoots). Translucent spots occur in three to ten days and well developed lesions are seen in two weeks. Lesions are sunken on the upper surface and convex at lower surface. Affected leaves are distorted and irregularly rolled. Stem infection leads to goose-neck shape, dieback and snapping at the point of infection.

Tea grows best in areas with a maximum temperature of 16-32 ºC and a well distributed rainfall of about 150 cm per annum. Relative humidity should be around 80% most of the time and should never be less than 40%. The area should not be prone to frost. The soil should be acidic (around pH 5.0) having good drainage facility.

Varieties

Clones:     UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9, UPASI-17, TRI-2025, TRF-1
Seedlings: BSS-1, BSS-2

Propagation
The seed viability extends up to 6 months. Before sowing, seeds are put in water and only the sinkers will be used and floaters rejected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and the cracked seeds are transplanted in polythene sleeves. The plants will be ready for planting in the main field in 9 months.

Manuring of nursery plants

Composition of tea nursery mixture is as follows:

Ammonium phosphate (20:20)     60 parts
Potassium sulphate                    24 parts
(or) Muriate of potash                  20 parts
Magnesium sulphate                   16 parts

Stock solution
Dissolve 30 g of the mixture in 10 litres of water. This can be sprayed over 2 m² (450 plants) at weekly interval.

Field preparation

In the case of new planting, in order to avoid the incidence of root diseases, after felling the trees, remove the root system to the extent possible. Clear the jungle growth but do not burn, the ash being alkaline will increase the pH.

In the case of replanting, remove old Grevillea (silver oak) after ring barking, leaving the young ones in the field. Level the land into an even slope to facilitate easy cultural operations and proper drainage.

Style of planting

Up and down:                             1.2 x 1.2 m (6800 plants/ha)
Contour planting, single hedge:    1.2 x 0.75 m (10,800 plants/ha)
Contour planting, double hedge:   1.35 x 0.75 x 0.75 m (13200 plants/ha)

The double hedge planting will accommodate more number of plants per unit area. Early high yield, better soil conservation, less weed growth, efficient cultural practices and better supervision are other advantages of double hedge planting.

Pitting

Pits of size 30 x 45 cm are taken. Keep the top and bottom soil separately. In clayey soil and drought-prone areas, deeper pits (60 cm) or trench planting will be advantageous.

Planting seasons
Southwest monsoon areas: June-July
Northeast monsoon areas: September-October

Planting
If the soil pH is more than 5.5, apply 100 g of powdered aluminium sulphate per pit and thoroughly mix with soil. Select seedlings of 12 months old. After planting the seedling, compact the soil surrounding the plant and apply mulch at the rate of 25 t/ha. While mulching care should be taken to keep the mulch material away from the collar region of the plant by putting a peg above the plant on the slope. Wherever mulch material is a problem, intercrop or cover crop could be raised.

Manuring

Manuring of young tea commences 2 months after planting. The ratio and source of nutrients vary according to soil reaction (pH).

Rates of fertilizer application for young tea in soils with pH below 4.5 are given below:
 

Apply phosphorus at 90 kg/ha every year in one application. The quantity of fertilizer per bush may be calculated assuming a population of 13,000 per ha.

Rates of application for soils with pH between 4.5 and 5.5 are as follows:

Apply phosphorus at 90 kg/ha every year in one application

Rates of application for soils with pH above 5.5 are as follows (use water soluble P):

The rate of fertilizer application for mature tea varies with yield and soil test values while the N:K₂O ratio varies with the stage of pruning.

Method of application
Apply the recommended quantity of mixtures along the drip circle of plants. In the semi-circular furrow taken above the plant on the slope, using a Kokra-eyebrow method, apply the fertilizers when there is adequate soil moisture and when the fields are free from weeds. Punch holes of 15-22 cm depth in the soil on either side of the plants and place the rock phosphate.

Training of young tea
Proper training of young tea is essential to encourage good spread of the bushes, proper development of frames and high density of plucking points.

Centering
Cut the leader stem of the plants with secateur to arrest the apical dominance and to induce the secondary branches. Cut as low as possible leaving 8-10 mature leaves below the cut. Ensure proper recovery. Centering should be done 4-6 months after planting during humid weather when there is adequate moisture in the soil.

Tipping
First plucking of the periodic shoot is done after centering / pruning. Two-tier tipping ensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm height will induce the tertiaries. Second tipping at 50 cm height will increase the density of plucking points. Tipping should be done at green, semi-hardwood branches. Tipping should be done in shoots having 3-4 leaves and a bud.

Plucking
Mother leaf / step-up plucking is practiced during lean seasons. Level plucking is done during high cropping months. This is essential for better frame development.

Shade management
The best permanent shade tree for tea plantation in South India is silver oak (Grevillea robusta).

Planting of silver oak
The silver oak can be propagated through seeds. The seeds should be sown within 6 months after collection. Seed should be sown in raised beds of 1 m width and of convenient length using sandy loam soil with a pH around 6.0. Seed should be covered with thin layer of sand / ash. Germination takes place in 2-3 weeks. Use 6-9 month old seedlings for planting. Plant along tea rows at a spacing of 6 x 6 m (275 plants/ha). Apply a mixture of 100 g rock phosphate and 400 g dolomite per pit and thoroughly mix with soil prior to planting. Apply NK mixture @ 100 g/tree twice in a year; rock phosphate at 250 g/tree and borated lime 1.1 kg (1 kg dolomite + 100 g boric acid) during alternate years.

Shade regulation
Tea requires only sparse shade. So retain optimum stand of shade based on the growth of the tree, altitude of the garden and aspect of the field (south and west slopes require more shade). Thin out shade initially to 12 x 6 m after 8-10 years of planting and if required further thinning may be done to 12 x 12 m at later stages (12 years from planting). Always thin out shade prior to pruning.

Pollarding
Cutting the main stem with the objective of developing lateral branches is pollarding. Commence pollarding when the trees attain a girth of around 50 cm at elbow level. Pollarding depends on altitude (8 m height for higher altitude, 9 m for low elevation). Leave one branch in each direction and 3 to 4 tiers of branches, below the pollarding height.

Annual lopping
Cutting the erect growing branches on the laterals is lopping, which should be done before the onset of monsoon and lop only the erect branches and retain the laterals.

Shade removal
Useful age of Grevillea is 40-60 years. Remove old trees after establishing new shade.

Temporary shade

For frost prone areas: Acacia mearnsii
For mid elevations: Indigofera teysmanii
For higher altitude: Sesbania cinerescens,
Crotalaria agathiflora and Acacia elata

Planting at 3 x 3 m spacing is adopted. Temporary shade should be removed after establishment of Grevilliea after 3 years.

Plucking

Ten commandments for plucking
1. Harvest two to three leaves and a bud and / or single and two-leaf banjis.
2. Pluck the mother leaf during January-March.
3. Pluck the new level during rest of the month.
4. Pluck at 7-10 days interval during high cropping months.
5. Pluck at 12-15 days interval during low cropping months.
6. Removal of banjis and breaking-back should be a part of plucking operation.
7. Do not pluck below the level.
8. Leave immature shoots.
9. Shear-harvest during rush periods.
10. Cut lanes in older fields.

Pruning

Post-pruning care
Apply copper oxychloride or sulphur + linseed oil (1:1) to large cut-ends after rejuvenation and hard pruning.

Plant protection

Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
These microscopic worms infest roots, which develop to knots or galls. Affected roots become defunct and devoid of lateral roots. Plants exhibit chlorosis and stunted growth.

Control

Nursery
Heat treatment: Spread soil sand mixture (5 cm thick) on a G.I. sheet. Heat it from below. Sprinkle water periodically. Mix the soil thoroughly by turning. Optimum temperature is 60-65ºC. Soil should not be too hot to hold in the hand. Over heating of soil will lead to manganese toxicity.
Chemical treatment

Mix carbofuran 3G (700 g/m³) thoroughly with soil and make it into a bed of 1 m width, 1 cm height and of convenient length. Give profuse watering at 3-5 days interval. Completely mix the soil before filling

Mature tea
Neem cake 2 kg per bush is recommended.

White / cockchafer grubs (Holotrichia sp.)
The creamy white grub eats away the roots. The main symptoms are ring barking of stem, chlorosis and defoliation. The pest is a serious problem in areas where un-decomposed farmyard manure is used.

Control

Nursery: Heat treatment of soil and use of granular insecticides is practised.

New clearing: Drench endosulfan (1:500 dilution) (deleted)
(1) At the time of planting: 500 ml per pit
(2) Post-planting treatment: Loosen the soil around the bush and pour one litre per bush.

Root mealy bug (Dysmicoccus sp.)
The pest is a problem in the nursery. It sucks sap from the callusing region, mother leaf petiole and axillary buds. This arrests root development; leads to mother-leaf fall and finally death of plant.
It can be controlled by spraying and soil drenching with chlorpyrifos or quinalphos 0.2%

Stem borers

Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
Mostly seen in new clearings as batches. Young stems are bored and larvae tunnel downward, make holes at intervals to eject excreta and wood particles. Frass and excreta are seen around plants. Alternate host of the pest is coffee and cocoa.

Large hepialid borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus)
This is a polyphagous pest attacking teak, eucalyptus and lantana. Thick branches (3 cm diameter) are preferred by the pest. Callus tissue and wood form food for larvae. Entrance holes are covered with frassy mat formed with chewed wood and silk.

Control

Cut the affected stem and pour quinalphos using ink filler. The holes are plugged with clay paste.

Mites
Several species of mites attack tea plants. They are dry weather pests mostly attacking mature foliage except pink and yellow mites.

Control
If infestation is more, chemicals like dicofol, quinalphos and monocrotophos will be effective.

Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus)
This is a major pest in all tea growing countries. Feeding causes lacerations of tissue and appears as streaks. Leaf surface becomes uneven, curled and matty. Feeding marks in bud appear as parallel lines on either side of mid-rib when leaf unfolds. Leaf margins turn yellow.

Control

Endosulfan, (deleted) phosalone, monocrotophos, quinalphos and dimethoate can be used for the pest control.

Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)
Adults and nymphs suck the sap from buds, young leaves and tender stems. Due to intensive feeding, leaves curl up, badly deform and shoots dry up. Chemical control involves spraying quinalphos + dichlorvos at spray intervals depending on the intensity of incidence

Root diseases

Black root disease (Rosellinia arcuata)
Common in areas, which were previously under jungles. The common symptoms are wilting, chlorosis, drying without defoliation and death of bush.

Control

Remove surface mulches around 10 metres. Drench soil with mancozeb 30 g per 10 litres of water. Follow phytosanitary measures. Biocontrol agents Trichoderma or Gliocladium (200 g per pit) may be incorporated at the time of planting.
Other root diseases are red root disease (Poria hypolateritia), brown root disease (Fomes noxius), root splitting disease (Armillaria mellea) and xylaria root disease (Xylaria sp.). Phytosanitary measures, use of biocontrol agents and chemical control (drench soil with tridemorph or hexaconazole 0.5%) are recommended.

Stem diseases
Collar canker (Phomopsis theae)
Seen mostly on young tea. The pathogen invades stem mostly through open wound. The predisposing factors for the disease are deep planting, planting in gravelly soils, mulching closer to collar, wounds caused by weeding implements, fertilizer application close to collar, pegging, low moisture status in bark and surface watering during dry weather. The main symptoms are chlorosis, cessation of growth, profuse flowering and canker on stem.

Control

Remove affected portion by pruning the healthy wood and apply copper fungicide to cut ends.

Other stem diseases are branch canker (Macrophoma theicola), wood rot (Hypoxylon serpens) and dieback (Leptothyrium theae).

Leaf disease

Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans)
The fungus affects only tender leaves and stems (pluckable shoots). Translucent spots occur in three to ten days and well developed lesions are seen in two weeks. Lesions are sunken on the upper surface and convex at lower surface. Affected leaves are distorted and irregularly rolled. Stem infection leads to goose-neck shape, dieback and snapping at the point of infection.

Control

Copper oxychloride 350 g + plantomycin 70 g per ha at 3 to 4 days interval can control the disease.
(Source: UPASI Tea Research Foundation, Coonoor)

Tobacco is generally raised as a cold weather crop, the optimum temperature range being 18 to 27ºC. The crop prefers well-drained fertile soil. Acidic soils are also suitable. It is sensitive to waterlogging.

Season:

October-February

Seeds and sowing

Raised nursery beds of 1 m width and of convenient length should be prepared for raising seedlings. The beds should be manured with well rotten FYM @ 1 kg/m². About 75 g seeds sown over an area of 100 m² will give the required number of seedlings for planting one hectare. Seeds may be mixed with fine sand or ash @ 1:15 by weight and broadcasted. It is covered by raking or by brushing. Watering may be done using rose-can. It is desirable to apply 1 kg of ammonium sulphate per 100 m² of nursery in liquid form and the application is repeated at tri-weekly intervals. Seedlings will be kept in the nursery for about 8-10 weeks. Pandal may be provided for shade.

Main field planting
Seedlings are transplanted on flat beds. The nursery is irrigated well a day before planting to facilitate easy pulling out of the seedlings. Seedlings are planted 10-15 cm deep in the main field at a spacing of 85 cm x 85 cm.

Manuring

Cattle manure @ 5-10 t ha^-1 for cigarette tobacco and 50-60 t ha^-1 for hookah tobacco may be applied as basal dose. Apply fertilizers (kg ha^-1) as shown below:

 

Tobacco	N	P2O5	K2O
Cigarette tobacco	100	50	100
Cigar tobacco	75	50	100
Beedi tobacco	100	50	100
Cheroot tobacco	50	50	100
Chewing tobacco	75-100	50	100

Aftercultivation
The first intercultivation may be done 12-15 days after transplanting. Thereafter, three hoeings are to be given at fortnightly intervals. Keep the field free of weeds. Irrigate as and when necessary.

Topping and de-suckering
Remove the terminal bud at the time of flowering. In the case of chewing tobacco, the number of leaves to be maintained varies from 8-15. Remove the suckers as and when produced.

Harvesting

Harvesting is done either by removing the mature leaves or by cutting the stalk when maximum leaves are matured. The harvested leaves are cured for the purpose for which the produce is meant.

Plant protection

Important pests and diseases of tobacco and their control measures are given below:

Stem borer (Phthorimoea spp.)

1. Use healthy seedlings for planting.

2. Spray the nursery with carbaryl 0.2 per cent

Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)
1. Destroy egg masses and groups of caterpillars found on the leaves.

2. Prevent oviposition on nursery plants by covering the beds at night with gunny sheets.

3. Spray carbaryl 0.2 per cent .

Bacterial wilt

1. Use resistant / tolerant varieties.
2. Rotate with resistant crops.

3. Do not let in irrigation water or drainage water from infested fields.

4. Discard all seedlings from infested nursery.

Damping off
1. Drench the nursery bed with cheshunt compound solution 3-4 days before sowing.
2. Spray the seedlings with mancozeb or zineb 0.3 per cent.

Powdery mildew